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Fine art, scientific discipline and practice of creating durable images by recording light or other electromagnetic radiation

Photography

Lens and mounting of a large-format camera
Other names	Science or fine art of creating durable images
Types	Recording lite or other electromagnetic radiation
Inventor	Louis Daguerre (1839) Henry Fox Talbot (1839)
Related	Stereoscopic, Full-spectrum, Light field, Electrophotography, Photograms, Scanner

Photography is the art, application, and do of creating durable images by recording light, either electronically past means of an image sensor, or chemically past ways of a light-sensitive material such as photographic movie. Information technology is employed in many fields of science, manufacturing (e.thou., photolithography), and business concern, as well equally its more direct uses for art, film and video production, recreational purposes, hobby, and mass advice.^[1]

Typically, a lens is used to focus the light reflected or emitted from objects into a real prototype on the light-sensitive surface inside a photographic camera during a timed exposure. With an electronic image sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel, which is electronically processed and stored in a digital paradigm file for subsequent display or processing. The result with photographic emulsion is an invisible latent image, which is later chemically "adult" into a visible image, either negative or positive, depending on the purpose of the photographic material and the method of processing. A negative image on film is traditionally used to photographically create a positive paradigm on a newspaper base, known equally a print, either by using an enlarger or past contact printing.

Etymology [edit]

The word "photography" was created from the Greek roots φωτός (phōtós), genitive of φῶς (phōs), "calorie-free"^[2] and γραφή (graphé) "representation by ways of lines" or "drawing",^[3] together meaning "drawing with lite".^[4]

Several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Hercules Florence, a French painter and inventor living in Campinas, Brazil, used the French class of the word, photographie, in private notes which a Brazilian historian believes were written in 1834.^[v] This claim is widely reported but is non however largely recognized internationally. The showtime utilise of the word by the Franco-Brazilian inventor became widely known afterwards the research of Boris Kossoy in 1980.^[6]

The German newspaper Vossische Zeitung of 25 Feb 1839 contained an article entitled Photographie, discussing several priority claims – especially Henry Fox Talbot's – regarding Daguerre's claim of invention.^[vii] The article is the earliest known occurrence of the word in public print.^[8] It was signed "J.M.", believed to have been Berlin astronomer Johann von Maedler.^[9] The astronomer Sir John Herschel is likewise credited with coining the word, contained of Talbot, in 1839.^[10]

The inventors Nicéphore Niépce, Henry Play a trick on Talbot and Louis Daguerre seem non to have known or used the discussion "photography", only referred to their processes as "Heliography" (Niépce), "Photogenic Drawing"/"Talbotype"/"Calotype" (Talbot) and "Daguerreotype" (Daguerre).^[9]

History [edit]

Precursor technologies [edit]

A photographic camera obscura used for cartoon

Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries, relating to seeing an prototype and capturing the image. The discovery of the camera obscura ("dark chamber" in Latin) that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid independently described a camera obscura in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE.^{[11] [12]} In the 6th century CE, Byzantine mathematician Anthemius of Tralles used a type of camera obscura in his experiments.^[13]

The Arab physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965–1040) also invented a camera obscura also every bit the showtime true pinhole camera.^{[12] [xiv] [fifteen]} The invention of the camera has been traced back to the work of Ibn al-Haytham.^[16] While the furnishings of a single light passing through a pinhole had been described earlier,^[sixteen] Ibn al-Haytham gave the first right analysis of the camera obscura,^[17] including the first geometrical and quantitative descriptions of the phenomenon,^[18] and was the first to apply a screen in a dark room so that an image from one side of a pigsty in the surface could be projected onto a screen on the other side.^[xix] He also get-go understood the relationship betwixt the focal betoken and the pinhole,^[20] and performed early experiments with afterimages, laying the foundations for the invention of photography in the 19th century.^[xv]

Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camerae obscurae that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley. A hole in the cavern wall volition human action every bit a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside downwards image on a slice of newspaper. Renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in colour that dominates Western Art. It is a box with a small hole in i side, which allows specific light rays to enter, projecting an inverted prototype onto a viewing screen or newspaper.

The nascency of photography was then concerned with inventing ways to capture and keep the paradigm produced by the photographic camera obscura. Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) discovered silver nitrate,^[21] and Georg Fabricius (1516–1571) discovered silvery chloride,^[22] and the techniques described in Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Eyes are capable of producing archaic photographs using medieval materials.^{[23] [24]}

Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566.^[25] Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals (photochemical upshot) in 1694.^[26] The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, described what can be interpreted as photography.^[25]

Around the yr 1800, British inventor Thomas Wedgwood made the outset known effort to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a calorie-free-sensitive substance. He used paper or white leather treated with silverish nitrate. Although he succeeded in capturing the shadows of objects placed on the surface in direct sunlight, and even fabricated shadow copies of paintings on glass, it was reported in 1802 that "the images formed by means of a photographic camera obscura have been found too faint to produce, in any moderate time, an effect upon the nitrate of silver." The shadow images eventually darkened all over.^[27]

Invention [edit]

Primeval known surviving heliographic engraving, 1825, printed from a metal plate fabricated by Nicéphore Niépce.^[28] The plate was exposed nether an ordinary engraving and copied it by photographic means. This was a step towards the kickoff permanent photograph taken with a camera.

View of the Boulevard du Temple, a daguerreotype fabricated by Louis Daguerre in 1838, is generally accustomed every bit the earliest photograph to include people. It is a view of a busy street, but because the exposure lasted for several minutes the moving traffic left no trace. But the ii men most the bottom left corner, one of them apparently having his boots polished by the other, remained in one place long enough to be visible.

The first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 past the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a afterward attempt to make prints from information technology.^[28] Niépce was successful once again in 1825. In 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature (i.due east., of the prototype of a existent-world scene, as formed in a camera obscura past a lens).^[29]

Considering Niépce'south camera photographs required an extremely long exposure (at least eight hours and probably several days), he sought to profoundly meliorate his bitumen process or replace information technology with ane that was more practical. In partnership with Louis Daguerre, he worked out post-exposure processing methods that produced visually superior results and replaced the bitumen with a more than light-sensitive resin, but hours of exposure in the camera were all the same required. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy.

Niépce died in 1833 and Daguerre then redirected the experiments toward the light-sensitive silver halides, which Niépce had abandoned many years earlier because of his inability to make the images he captured with them calorie-free-fast and permanent. Daguerre'southward efforts culminated in what would subsequently be named the daguerreotype process. The essential elements—a silver-plated surface sensitized past iodine vapor, developed by mercury vapor, and "fixed" with hot saturated salt water—were in place in 1837. The required exposure time was measured in minutes instead of hours. Daguerre took the earliest confirmed photograph of a person in 1838 while capturing a view of a Paris street: dissimilar the other pedestrian and horse-drawn traffic on the decorated boulevard, which appears deserted, one man having his boots polished stood sufficiently nonetheless throughout the several-minutes-long exposure to exist visible. The existence of Daguerre's process was publicly announced, without details, on 7 Jan 1839. The news created an international sensation. France soon agreed to pay Daguerre a alimony in exchange for the correct to nowadays his invention to the world equally the gift of French republic, which occurred when complete working instructions were unveiled on xix August 1839. In that same year, American photographer Robert Cornelius is credited with taking the earliest surviving photographic self-portrait.

A latticed window in Lacock Abbey, England, photographed by William Fox Talbot in 1835. Shown here in positive form, this may be the oldest extant photographic negative made in a camera.

In Brazil, Hercules Florence had apparently started working out a silverish-table salt-based paper process in 1832, subsequently naming it Photographie.

Meanwhile, a British inventor, William Fox Talbot, had succeeded in making rough simply reasonably light-fast silver images on paper as early equally 1834 only had kept his work secret. After reading about Daguerre's invention in January 1839, Talbot published his hitherto hugger-mugger method and prepare about improving on it. At first, like other pre-daguerreotype processes, Talbot's paper-based photography typically required hours-long exposures in the camera, but in 1840 he created the calotype process, which used the chemical development of a latent image to greatly reduce the exposure needed and compete with the daguerreotype. In both its original and calotype forms, Talbot'southward process, unlike Daguerre'due south, created a translucent negative which could be used to print multiple positive copies; this is the footing of most modern chemical photography upwardly to the present day, as daguerreotypes could just be replicated past rephotographing them with a camera.^[30] Talbot's famous tiny paper negative of the Oriel window in Lacock Abbey, one of a number of photographic camera photographs he made in the summer of 1835, may be the oldest camera negative in being.^{[31] [32]}

In France, Hippolyte Bayard invented his own process for producing directly positive paper prints and claimed to have invented photography earlier than Daguerre or Talbot.^[33]

British chemist John Herschel fabricated many contributions to the new field. He invented the cyanotype process, afterwards familiar as the "blueprint". He was the get-go to use the terms "photography", "negative" and "positive". He had discovered in 1819 that sodium thiosulphate was a solvent of silvery halides, and in 1839 he informed Talbot (and, indirectly, Daguerre) that it could be used to "ready" silver-halide-based photographs and make them completely lite-fast. He made the showtime glass negative in late 1839.

Wilson Chinn, a branded slave from Louisiana--per The New York Times, "one of the earliest and most dramatic examples of how the newborn medium of photography could change the class of history."^[34]

Advertizing for Campbell's Photograph Gallery from The Macon City Directory, circa 1877.

In the March 1851 event of The Chemist, Frederick Scott Archer published his moisture plate collodion process. It became the nearly widely used photographic medium until the gelatin dry plate, introduced in the 1870s, eventually replaced it. There are 3 subsets to the collodion process; the Ambrotype (a positive paradigm on glass), the Ferrotype or Tintype (a positive prototype on metal) and the drinking glass negative, which was used to make positive prints on albumen or salted newspaper.

Many advances in photographic glass plates and printing were made during the rest of the 19th century. In 1891, Gabriel Lippmann introduced a process for making natural-colour photographs based on the optical phenomenon of the interference of light waves. His scientifically elegant and important simply ultimately impractical invention earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1908.

Glass plates were the medium for most original camera photography from the tardily 1850s until the general introduction of flexible plastic films during the 1890s. Although the convenience of the motion-picture show greatly popularized apprentice photography, early films were somewhat more than expensive and of markedly lower optical quality than their glass plate equivalents, and until the late 1910s they were non available in the large formats preferred by most professional person photographers, so the new medium did not immediately or completely replace the erstwhile. Because of the superior dimensional stability of glass, the utilize of plates for some scientific applications, such as astrophotography, continued into the 1990s, and in the niche field of laser holography, it has persisted into the 21st century.

Flick [edit]

Undeveloped Arista black-and-white motion-picture show, ISO 125/22°

Hurter and Driffield began pioneering work on the low-cal sensitivity of photographic emulsions in 1876. Their work enabled the offset quantitative measure of motion-picture show speed to be devised.

The first flexible photographic roll pic was marketed by George Eastman, founder of Kodak in 1885, but this original "film" was really a blanket on a paper base. As part of the processing, the paradigm-begetting layer was stripped from the paper and transferred to a hardened gelatin back up. The starting time transparent plastic roll film followed in 1889. It was made from highly flammable nitrocellulose known as nitrate moving-picture show.

Although cellulose acetate or "safety moving picture" had been introduced by Kodak in 1908,^[35] at first information technology found only a few special applications as an alternative to the chancy nitrate film, which had the advantages of existence considerably tougher, slightly more than transparent, and cheaper. The changeover was not completed for X-ray films until 1933, and although safety picture show was always used for sixteen mm and 8 mm home movies, nitrate picture remained standard for theatrical 35 mm motion pictures until it was finally discontinued in 1951.

Films remained the dominant form of photography until the early 21st century when advances in digital photography drew consumers to digital formats.^[36] Although mod photography is dominated by digital users, film continues to be used by enthusiasts and professional photographers. The distinctive "look" of film based photographs compared to digital images is likely due to a combination of factors, including: (1) differences in spectral and tonal sensitivity (S-shaped density-to-exposure (H&D curve) with picture vs. linear response bend for digital CCD sensors)^[37] (ii) resolution and (three) continuity of tone.^[38]

Blackness-and-white [edit]

Originally, all photography was monochrome, or blackness-and-white. Even afterwards color picture was readily available, black-and-white photography continued to dominate for decades, due to its lower price, chemic stability, and its "classic" photographic look. The tones and contrast between calorie-free and dark areas define black-and-white photography.^[39] Monochromatic pictures are not necessarily composed of pure blacks, whites, and intermediate shades of gray just can involve shades of one particular hue depending on the process. The cyanotype procedure, for example, produces an epitome composed of blue tones. The albumen impress process, publicly revealed in 1847, produces brownish tones.

Many photographers continue to produce some monochrome images, sometimes because of the established archival permanence of well-processed argent-halide-based materials. Some total-color digital images are processed using a variety of techniques to create black-and-white results, and some manufacturers produce digital cameras that exclusively shoot monochrome. Monochrome printing or electronic display can be used to salvage sure photographs taken in color which are unsatisfactory in their original form; sometimes when presented equally black-and-white or single-colour-toned images they are constitute to be more than effective. Although colour photography has long predominated, monochrome images are still produced, mostly for artistic reasons. Well-nigh all digital cameras have an option to shoot in monochrome, and almost all paradigm editing software can combine or selectively discard RGB color channels to produce a monochrome image from one shot in colour.

Color [edit]

Color photography was explored commencement in the 1840s. Early experiments in color required extremely long exposures (hours or days for camera images) and could not "fix" the photo to prevent the color from quickly fading when exposed to white light.

The showtime permanent color photo was taken in 1861 using the three-color-separation principle commencement published by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell in 1855.^{[40] [41]} The foundation of virtually all applied color processes, Maxwell'due south idea was to have 3 separate blackness-and-white photographs through red, dark-green and bluish filters.^{[40] [41]} This provides the photographer with the three basic channels required to recreate a color epitome. Transparent prints of the images could exist projected through similar color filters and superimposed on the project screen, an additive method of color reproduction. A color print on paper could be produced past superimposing carbon prints of the three images made in their complementary colors, a subtractive method of color reproduction pioneered by Louis Ducos du Hauron in the late 1860s.

Color photography was possible long before Kodachrome, as this 1903 portrait past Sarah Angelina Acland demonstrates, merely in its primeval years, the need for special equipment, long exposures, and complicated printing processes made information technology extremely rare.

Russian photographer Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii made extensive use of this color separation technique, employing a special photographic camera which successively exposed the three color-filtered images on dissimilar parts of an ellipsoidal plate. Because his exposures were not simultaneous, unsteady subjects exhibited color "fringes" or, if rapidly moving through the scene, appeared as brightly colored ghosts in the resulting projected or printed images.

Implementation of color photography was hindered past the limited sensitivity of early on photographic materials, which were mostly sensitive to blueish, only slightly sensitive to greenish, and virtually insensitive to red. The discovery of dye sensitization by photochemist Hermann Vogel in 1873 suddenly made it possible to add sensitivity to dark-green, yellow and even carmine. Improved colour sensitizers and ongoing improvements in the overall sensitivity of emulsions steadily reduced the once-prohibitive long exposure times required for colour, bringing it ever closer to commercial viability.

Autochrome, the first commercially successful colour process, was introduced past the Lumière brothers in 1907. Autochrome plates incorporated a mosaic color filter layer made of dyed grains of irish potato starch, which allowed the three color components to exist recorded as adjacent microscopic prototype fragments. Afterward an Autochrome plate was reversal processed to produce a positive transparency, the starch grains served to illuminate each fragment with the right color and the tiny colored points blended together in the eye, synthesizing the color of the subject by the additive method. Autochrome plates were ane of several varieties of additive colour screen plates and films marketed between the 1890s and the 1950s.

Kodachrome, the start modern "integral tripack" (or "monopack") colour film, was introduced by Kodak in 1935. It captured the 3 color components in a multi-layer emulsion. One layer was sensitized to tape the red-dominated part of the spectrum, another layer recorded only the green office and a third recorded only the bluish. Without special film processing, the consequence would simply be three superimposed blackness-and-white images, but complementary cyan, magenta, and yellowish dye images were created in those layers by adding color couplers during a complex processing process.

Agfa's similarly structured Agfacolor Neu was introduced in 1936. Unlike Kodachrome, the color couplers in Agfacolor Neu were incorporated into the emulsion layers during manufacture, which greatly simplified the processing. Currently, bachelor colour films all the same utilize a multi-layer emulsion and the aforementioned principles, most closely resembling Agfa'due south production.

Instant colour film, used in a special camera which yielded a unique finished colour print only a minute or two after the exposure, was introduced by Polaroid in 1963.

Color photography may form images equally positive transparencies, which tin can be used in a slide projector, or as colour negatives intended for utilise in creating positive color enlargements on specially coated paper. The latter is now the nearly mutual class of motion picture (non-digital) colour photography owing to the introduction of automated photo press equipment. Later a transition menses centered around 1995–2005, colour film was relegated to a niche marketplace by cheap multi-megapixel digital cameras. Flick continues to exist the preference of some photographers because of its distinctive "await".

Digital [edit]

Kodak DCS 100, based on a Nikon F3 body with Digital Storage Unit

In 1981, Sony unveiled the first consumer camera to utilize a accuse-coupled device for imaging, eliminating the need for movie: the Sony Mavica. While the Mavica saved images to disk, the images were displayed on tv set, and the camera was not fully digital.

The first digital camera to both record and save images in a digital format was the Fujix DS-1P created past Fujfilm in 1988.^[42]

In 1991, Kodak unveiled the DCS 100, the first commercially available digital single lens reflex camera. Although its high toll precluded uses other than photojournalism and professional photography, commercial digital photography was built-in.

Digital imaging uses an electronic image sensor to record the image as a ready of electronic data rather than as chemical changes on picture show.^[43] An important difference between digital and chemic photography is that chemic photography resists photograph manipulation because it involves motion picture and photographic newspaper, while digital imaging is a highly manipulative medium. This difference allows for a degree of epitome post-processing that is comparatively difficult in film-based photography and permits different communicative potentials and applications.

Photography on a smartphone

Digital photography dominates the 21st century. More than than 99% of photographs taken effectually the world are through digital cameras, increasingly through smartphones.

Techniques [edit]

Angles such every bit vertical, horizontal, or as pictured hither diagonal are considered important photographic techniques

A big variety of photographic techniques and media are used in the process of capturing images for photography. These include the photographic camera; dualphotography; full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared media; low-cal field photography; and other imaging techniques.

Cameras [edit]

The camera is the image-forming device, and a photographic plate, photographic motion-picture show or a silicon electronic paradigm sensor is the capture medium. The respective recording medium can be the plate or film itself, or a digital magnetic or electronic retentiveness.^[44]

Photographers control the camera and lens to "expose" the light recording fabric to the required amount of low-cal to form a "latent prototype" (on plate or film) or RAW file (in digital cameras) which, later advisable processing, is converted to a usable epitome. Digital cameras use an electronic prototype sensor based on lite-sensitive electronics such equally accuse-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology. The resulting digital image is stored electronically, only can exist reproduced on a newspaper.

The camera (or 'camera obscura') is a nighttime room or chamber from which, as far as possible, all lite is excluded except the low-cal that forms the epitome. It was discovered and used in the 16th century by painters. The subject being photographed, nevertheless, must be illuminated. Cameras can range from small to very large, a whole room that is kept night while the object to be photographed is in another room where it is properly illuminated. This was common for reproduction photography of flat re-create when large film negatives were used (encounter Process photographic camera).

As shortly as photographic materials became "fast" (sensitive) plenty for taking candid or surreptitious pictures, minor "detective" cameras were made, some actually disguised every bit a book or handbag or pocket watch (the Ticka photographic camera) or even worn hidden behind an Ascot necktie with a tie pivot that was really the lens.

The movie camera is a type of photographic camera which takes a rapid sequence of photographs on recording medium. In dissimilarity to a still camera, which captures a unmarried snapshot at a time, the motion picture photographic camera takes a serial of images, each called a "frame". This is achieved through an intermittent mechanism. The frames are later played back in a movie projector at a specific speed, called the "frame rate" (number of frames per second). While viewing, a person's eyes and brain merge the carve up pictures to create the illusion of motion.^[45]

Stereoscopic [edit]

Photographs, both monochrome and colour, tin be captured and displayed through ii side-by-side images that emulate human stereoscopic vision. Stereoscopic photography was the first that captured figures in motility.^[46] While known colloquially equally "3-D" photography, the more accurate term is stereoscopy. Such cameras have long been realized past using film and more recently in digital electronic methods (including cell telephone cameras).

Dualphotography [edit]

An case of a dualphoto using a smartphone based app

Dualphotography consists of photographing a scene from both sides of a photographic device at in one case (e.g. camera for back-to-back dualphotography, or ii networked cameras for portal-aeroplane dualphotography). The dualphoto apparatus can exist used to simultaneously capture both the discipline and the lensman, or both sides of a geographical identify at once, thus adding a supplementary narrative layer to that of a single image.^[47]

Full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared [edit]

Ultraviolet and infrared films have been available for many decades and employed in a multifariousness of photographic avenues since the 1960s. New technological trends in digital photography have opened a new direction in total spectrum photography, where conscientious filtering choices across the ultraviolet, visible and infrared lead to new creative visions.

Modified digital cameras can detect some ultraviolet, all of the visible and much of the near infrared spectrum, as nearly digital imaging sensors are sensitive from about 350 nm to yard nm. An off-the-shelf digital camera contains an infrared hot mirror filter that blocks nearly of the infrared and a bit of the ultraviolet that would otherwise be detected by the sensor, narrowing the accepted range from virtually 400 nm to 700 nm.^[48]

Replacing a hot mirror or infrared blocking filter with an infrared pass or a wide spectrally transmitting filter allows the camera to find the wider spectrum light at greater sensitivity. Without the hot-mirror, the red, light-green and bluish (or cyan, xanthous and magenta) colored micro-filters placed over the sensor elements laissez passer varying amounts of ultraviolet (blue window) and infrared (primarily red and somewhat lesser the green and blueish micro-filters).

Uses of total spectrum photography are for fine art photography, geology, forensics and law enforcement.

Layering [edit]

Layering is a photographic composition technique that manipulates the foreground, subject field or middle-footing, and background layers in a way that they all work together to tell a story through the epitome.^[49] Layers may be incorporated by altering the focal length, distorting the perspective by positioning the camera in a sure spot.^[50] People, movement, light and a variety of objects tin be used in layering.^[51]

Calorie-free field [edit]

Digital methods of image capture and display processing take enabled the new technology of "calorie-free field photography" (as well known as synthetic aperture photography). This process allows focusing at various depths of field to exist selected after the photograph has been captured.^[52] As explained past Michael Faraday in 1846, the "light field" is understood as 5-dimensional, with each point in 3-D space having attributes of two more angles that define the management of each ray passing through that signal.

These additional vector attributes tin can be captured optically through the utilize of microlenses at each pixel point inside the 2-dimensional epitome sensor. Every pixel of the final image is actually a option from each sub-array located under each microlens, as identified by a mail service-paradigm capture focus algorithm.

Other [edit]

Besides the photographic camera, other methods of forming images with lite are available. For instance, a photocopy or xerography automobile forms permanent images simply uses the transfer of static electrical charges rather than photographic medium, hence the term electrophotography. Photograms are images produced by the shadows of objects cast on the photographic paper, without the use of a camera. Objects tin too exist placed directly on the drinking glass of an image scanner to produce digital pictures.

Types [edit]

Amateur [edit]

Amateur photographers take photos for personal use, every bit a hobby or out of casual interest, rather than as a business or job. The quality amateur piece of work can be comparable to that of many professionals. Amateurs tin fill a gap in subjects or topics that might not otherwise exist photographed if they are not commercially useful or salable. Apprentice photography grew during the tardily 19th century due to the popularization of the paw-held camera.^[53] Twenty-first century social media and most-ubiquitous camera phones have fabricated photographic and video recording pervasive in everyday life. In the mid-2010s smartphone cameras added numerous automated assistance features like color management, autofocus confront detection and image stabilization that significantly decreased skill and effort needed to have high quality images.^[54]

Commercial [edit]

Commercial photography is probably best defined equally any photography for which the photographer is paid for images rather than works of art. In this lite, coin could be paid for the subject of the photograph or the photograph itself. Wholesale, retail, and professional uses of photography would autumn under this definition. The commercial photographic world could include:

• Advertisement photography: photographs made to illustrate and usually sell a service or production. These images, such as packshots, are mostly washed with an advertising bureau, design house or with an in-house corporate pattern team.
• Architectural photography focuses on capturing photographs of buildings and architectural structures that are aesthetically pleasing and accurate in terms of representations of their subjects.
• Event photography focuses on photographing guests and occurrences at mostly social events.
• Style and glamour photography commonly incorporates models and is a form of advertising photography. Fashion photography, like the work featured in Harper's Bazaar, emphasizes dress and other products; glamour emphasizes the model and body class. Glamour photography is popular in advertising and men'southward magazines. Models in glamour photography sometimes work nude.
• 360 production photography displays a serial of photos to give the impression of a rotating object. This technique is normally used by ecommerce websites to assistance shoppers visualise products.
• Concert photography focuses on capturing candid images of both the artist or band as well as the temper (including the crowd). Many of these photographers piece of work freelance and are contracted through an creative person or their management to cover a specific bear witness. Concert photographs are ofttimes used to promote the artist or band in add-on to the venue.
• Criminal offence scene photography consists of photographing scenes of crime such equally robberies and murders. A black and white photographic camera or an infrared photographic camera may be used to capture specific details.
• However life photography usually depicts inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace objects which may exist either natural or man-made. Still life is a broader category for food and some natural photography and can be used for advertizement purposes.
• Real Estate photography focuses on the production of photographs showcasing a holding that is for sale, such photographs requires the use of wide-lens and extensive knowledge in High-dynamic-range imaging photography.

Example of a studio-made food photo.

• Food photography can be used for editorial, packaging or advertising use. Food photography is like to still life photography but requires some special skills.
• Photojournalism can exist considered a subset of editorial photography. Photographs made in this context are accepted as a documentation of a news story.
• Paparazzi is a form of photojournalism in which the photographer captures aboveboard images of athletes, celebrities, politicians, and other prominent people.
• Portrait and wedding photography: photographs made and sold straight to the cease user of the images.
• Landscape photography depicts locations.
• Wild fauna photography demonstrates the life of wild animals.

Art [edit]

During the 20th century, both fine fine art photography and documentary photography became accepted by the English-speaking art world and the gallery system. In the United States, a handful of photographers, including Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, John Szarkowski, F. The netherlands Day, and Edward Weston, spent their lives advocating for photography as a fine art. At first, fine art photographers tried to imitate painting styles. This movement is chosen Pictorialism, ofttimes using soft focus for a dreamy, 'romantic' look. In reaction to that, Weston, Ansel Adams, and others formed the Group f/64 to advocate 'straight photography', the photograph as a (sharply focused) affair in itself and not an false of something else.

The aesthetics of photography is a affair that continues to be discussed regularly, especially in artistic circles. Many artists argued that photography was the mechanical reproduction of an image. If photography is authentically fine art, then photography in the context of art would need redefinition, such as determining what component of a photograph makes it cute to the viewer. The controversy began with the earliest images "written with light"; Nicéphore Niépce, Louis Daguerre, and others among the very earliest photographers were met with acclaim, but some questioned if their work met the definitions and purposes of art.

Clive Bell in his classic essay Art states that only "significant form" can distinguish art from what is not fine art.

There must exist some one quality without which a work of fine art cannot exist; possessing which, in the to the lowest degree caste, no piece of work is altogether worthless. What is this quality? What quality is shared by all objects that provoke our aesthetic emotions? What quality is mutual to Sta. Sophia and the windows at Chartres, Mexican sculpture, a Western farsi bowl, Chinese carpets, Giotto's frescoes at Padua, and the masterpieces of Poussin, Piero della Francesca, and Cezanne? Only ane answer seems possible – significant form. In each, lines and colors combined in a particular manner, sure forms and relations of forms, stir our aesthetic emotions.^[55]

On seven February 2007, Sotheby'south London sold the 2001 photograph 99 Cent Two Diptychon for an unprecedented $iii,346,456 to an anonymous bidder, making information technology the most expensive at the time.^[56]

Conceptual photography turns a concept or idea into a photograph. Even though what is depicted in the photographs are existent objects, the subject is strictly abstract.

In parallel to this development, the so largely split up interface between painting and photography was closed in the early 1970s with the work of the photo artists Pierre Cordier (Chimigramm), Chemigram and Josef H. Neumann, Chemogram. In 1974 the chemograms by Josef H. Neumann concluded the separation of the painterly background and the photographic layer past showing the motion-picture show elements in a symbiosis that had never existed before, as an unmistakable unique specimen, in a simultaneous painterly and at the same fourth dimension existent photographic perspective, using lenses, within a photographic layer, united in colors and shapes. This Neumann chemogram from the seventies of the 20th century thus differs from the beginning of the previously created cameraless chemigrams of a Pierre Cordier and the photogram Homo Ray or László Moholy-Nagy of the previous decades. These works of fine art were virtually simultaneous with the invention of photography by various important artists who characterized Hippolyte Bayard, Thomas Wedgwood, William Henry Pull a fast one on Talbot in their early stages, and later Man Ray and László Moholy-Nagy in the twenties and past the painter in the thirties Edmund Kesting and Christian Schad by draping objects directly onto appropriately sensitized photograph newspaper and using a light source without a camera. ^[57]

Photojournalism [edit]

National Guardsman in Washington D.C. (2021)

Photojournalism is a particular form of photography (the collecting, editing, and presenting of news fabric for publication or broadcast) that employs images in order to tell a news story. It is now usually understood to refer simply to nevertheless images, but in some cases the term too refers to video used in broadcast journalism. Photojournalism is distinguished from other close branches of photography (e.yard., documentary photography, social documentary photography, street photography or glory photography) by complying with a rigid ethical framework which demands that the piece of work exist both honest and impartial whilst telling the story in strictly journalistic terms. Photojournalists create pictures that contribute to the news media, and assistance communities connect with one other. Photojournalists must be well informed and knowledgeable about events happening right outside their door. They deliver news in a creative format that is not but informative, only too entertaining, including sports photography.

Science and forensics [edit]

The camera has a long and distinguished history as a means of recording scientific phenomena from the first employ by Daguerre and Fox-Talbot, such as astronomical events (eclipses for example), small creatures and plants when the camera was attached to the eyepiece of microscopes (in photomicroscopy) and for macro photography of larger specimens. The camera also proved useful in recording criminal offence scenes and the scenes of accidents, such every bit the Wootton bridge collapse in 1861. The methods used in analysing photographs for use in legal cases are collectively known as forensic photography. Crime scene photos are taken from three vantage point. The vantage points are overview, mid-range, and close-up.^[58]

In 1845 Francis Ronalds, the Honorary Manager of the Kew Observatory, invented the first successful camera to make continuous recordings of meteorological and geomagnetic parameters. Different machines produced 12- or 24- hour photographic traces of the minute-by-minute variations of atmospheric force per unit area, temperature, humidity, atmospheric electricity, and the iii components of geomagnetic forces. The cameras were supplied to numerous observatories effectually the world and some remained in use until well into the 20th century.^{[59] [60]} Charles Brooke a little later developed similar instruments for the Greenwich Observatory.^[61]

Science uses image technology that has derived from the design of the Pin Pigsty camera. 10-Ray machines are like in design to Pin Hole cameras with high-grade filters and laser radiation.^[62] Photography has become universal in recording events and information in science and engineering, and at criminal offense scenes or accident scenes. The method has been much extended by using other wavelengths, such every bit infrared photography and ultraviolet photography, equally well as spectroscopy. Those methods were beginning used in the Victorian era and improved much further since that time.^[63]

The offset photographed atom was discovered in 2012 by physicists at Griffith University, Australia. They used an electric field to trap an "Ion" of the chemical element, Ytterbium. The prototype was recorded on a CCD, an electronic photographic motion-picture show.^[64]

Wildlife Photography [edit]

Wildlife photography involves capturing images of various forms of wild fauna. Different other forms of photography such as product or food photography, successful wildlife photography requires a photographer to choose the right place and right time when specific wildlife are present and active. It often requires great patience and considerable skill and command of the right photographic equipment.^[65]

Social and cultural implications [edit]

There are many ongoing questions about different aspects of photography. In her On Photography (1977), Susan Sontag dismisses the objectivity of photography. This is a highly debated field of study within the photographic customs.^[66] Sontag argues, "To photograph is to appropriate the thing photographed. Information technology means putting one'due south self into a certain relation to the world that feels like knowledge, and therefore like power."^[67] Photographers decide what to take a photograph of, what elements to exclude and what bending to frame the photo, and these factors may reflect a particular socio-historical context. Along these lines, it tin can exist argued that photography is a subjective course of representation.

Modern photography has raised a number of concerns on its effect on guild. In Alfred Hitchcock'southward Rear Window (1954), the camera is presented as promoting voyeurism. 'Although the photographic camera is an observation station, the act of photographing is more than passive observing'.^[67]

The camera doesn't rape or fifty-fifty possess, though information technology may assume, intrude, trespass, distort, exploit, and, at the farthest reach of metaphor, assassinate – all activities that, dissimilar the sexual push and shove, can exist conducted from a distance, and with some disengagement.^[67]

Digital imaging has raised upstanding concerns because of the ease of manipulating digital photographs in mail-processing. Many photojournalists take alleged they will non crop their pictures or are forbidden from combining elements of multiple photos to brand "photomontages", passing them as "real" photographs. Today's engineering has made image editing relatively simple for even the novice lensman. However, recent changes of in-camera processing allow digital fingerprinting of photos to detect tampering for purposes of forensic photography.

Photography is one of the new media forms that changes perception and changes the construction of society.^[68] Further unease has been caused around cameras in regards to desensitization. Fears that disturbing or explicit images are widely accessible to children and social club at large take been raised. Peculiarly, photos of war and pornography are causing a stir. Sontag is concerned that "to photograph is to turn people into objects that can be symbolically possessed". Desensitization discussion goes hand in hand with debates about censored images. Sontag writes of her business that the ability to censor pictures ways the lensman has the ability to construct reality.^[67]

One of the practices through which photography constitutes order is tourism. Tourism and photography combine to create a "tourist gaze"^[69] in which local inhabitants are positioned and defined by the camera lens. However, it has also been argued that in that location exists a "reverse gaze"^[70] through which indigenous photographees can position the tourist photographer every bit a shallow consumer of images.

Law [edit]

Photography is both restricted and protected by the law in many jurisdictions. Protection of photographs is typically achieved through the granting of copyright or moral rights to the photographer. In the United States, photography is protected as a First Amendment right and anyone is costless to photograph anything seen in public spaces equally long equally it is in obviously view.^[71] In the Britain a recent law (Counter-Terrorism Act 2008) increases the ability of the police force to forestall people, even press photographers, from taking pictures in public places.^[72] In South Africa, whatever person may photo whatever other person, without their permission, in public spaces and the only specific restriction placed on what may not be photographed by government is related to anything classed every bit national security. Each state has different laws.

See besides [edit]

• Outline of photography
• Science of photography
• Listing of photographers
• Listing of photography awards
• Astrophotography
• Epitome editing
• Imaging
• Photolab and minilab
• Visual arts

References [edit]

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Further reading [edit]

Introduction [edit]

• Barrett, T 2012, Criticizing Photographs: an introduction to understanding images, fifth edn, McGraw-Hill, New York.
• Bate, D. (2009), Photography: The Key Concepts, Bloomsbury, New York.
• Berger, J. (Dyer, G. ed.), (2013), Agreement a Photograph, Penguin Classics, London.
• Bright, Southward 2011, Fine art Photography Now, Thames & Hudson, London.
• Cotton fiber, C. (2015), The Photo as Contemporary Fine art, third edn, Thames & Hudson, New York.
• Heiferman, M. (2013), Photography Changes Everything, Aperture Foundation, The states.
• Shore, Due south. (2015), The Nature of Photographs, 2d ed. Phaidon, New York.
• Wells, L. (2004), Photography. A Critical Introduction [Paperback], 3rd ed. Routledge, London. ISBN 0-415-30704-X

History [edit]

• A New History of Photography, ed. past Michel Frizot, Köln : Könemann, 1998
• Franz-Xaver Schlegel, Das Leben der toten Dinge – Studien zur modernen Sachfotografie in den Usa 1914–1935, 2 Bände, Stuttgart/Germany: Art in Life 1999, ISBN three-00-004407-8.

Reference works [edit]

• Tom Ang (2002). Lexicon of Photography and Digital Imaging: The Essential Reference for the Mod Photographer. Watson-Guptill. ISBN978-0-8174-3789-3.
• Hans-Michael Koetzle: Das Lexikon der Fotografen: 1900 bis heute, Munich: Knaur 2002, 512 p., ISBN 3-426-66479-8
• John Hannavy (ed.): Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography, 1736 p., New York: Routledge 2005 ISBN 978-0-415-97235-2
• Lynne Warren (Hrsg.): Encyclopedia of Twentieth-Century Photography, 1719 p., New York: Routledge, 2006
• The Oxford Companion to the Photograph, ed. past Robin Lenman, Oxford University Press 2005
• "The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography", Richard Zakia, Leslie Stroebel, Focal Printing 1993, ISBN 0-240-51417-3
• Stroebel, Leslie (2000). Bones Photographic Materials and Processes. et al. Boston: Focal Press. ISBN978-0-240-80405-seven.

Other books [edit]

• Photography and The Art of Seeing by Freeman Patterson, Central Porter Books 1989, ISBN 1-55013-099-four.
• The Fine art of Photography: An Approach to Personal Expression by Bruce Barnbaum, Rocky Nook 2010, ISBN one-933952-68-seven.
• Image Clarity: Loftier Resolution Photography past John B. Williams, Focal Printing 1990, ISBN 0-240-80033-viii.

External links [edit]

• World History of Photography From The History of Art.
• Daguerreotype to Digital: A Brief History of the Photographic Process From the Land Library & Archives of Florida.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photography

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